Photodynamic therapy (PDT) induces immunogenic cell death (ICD) through reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, bridging localized tumor ablation with systemic antitumor immunity. However, the tumor microenvironment (TME) erects three barriers that intercept the PDT-immune cascade at distinct levels. The biochemical barrier, defined by chronic hypoxia and elevated antioxidant defenses, restricts ROS accumulation below the ICD threshold. The physical barrier, constructed by a dense extracellular matrix and activated cancer-associated fibroblasts, confines photosensitizers to the tumor periphery and excludes effector immune cells. The immunosuppressive barrier, mediated by tumor-associated macrophages, regulatory T cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, neutralizes immune activation signals even after successful ICD induction. These barriers are deeply coupled: breaching any single layer yields limited benefit when the others remain intact. This review examines how barrier-oriented PDT-immunotherapy strategies, particularly nanoplatform-enabled approaches, can relieve these three barriers and restore the PDT-immune cascade.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors, like PD-1/PD-L1 blockers, have revolutionized cancer treatment in recent years. However, these therapies still face many problems, such as low objective response rates and drug resistance, making clinical treatment very difficult. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME), including various subtypes such as “cold tumors”, “hot tumors”, and “immune-rejecting tumors”, as well as complex immunosuppressive mechanisms, is a major factor leading to resistance to immunotherapy. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy can aid in treatment by inducing immunogenic cell death, but they often lead to PD-L1 upregulation, which causes treatment effects to vary over time and space and reduces their efficacy. Given their excellent biocompatibility, drug delivery capacity, and responsiveness to environmental factors, nanomaterials offer a novel opportunity to address this challenge. This review explores sequential nanoregulation strategies based on different types of TME, describes how functionalized nanocarriers, such as stimulus-responsive polymers, liposomes, and biomimetic nanoparticles, can be used to detect changes in the microenvironment, like pH, enzymes, and reactive oxygen species, and to precisely deliver drugs when needed. This will allow researchers to target key points of immune activation, thereby blocking immune checkpoint signaling. These specific strategies, which include antigen release, immune system activation, and blocking interventions, not only offer new approaches for overcoming PD-L1 resistance but also shed light on the challenges and opportunities associated with applying these strategies in clinical practice.

Lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (LNPs) offer an emerging non-invasive theranostic platform for monitoring and treating neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) own to their high optical stability, deep tissue penetration, and excellent biocompatibility. Their key advantage lies in the ability to produce upconversion or downshifting luminescence under near-infrared excitation, enabling high-resolution deep-tissue imaging and in situ monitoring, particularly suitable for tracking pathological progression and studying molecular interactions in disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. By integrating functional components such as organic dyes, noble metal nanoparticles, or therapeutic agents, LNPs can be engineered into multifunctional theranostic nanoplatforms capable of simultaneous diagnosis and targeted therapy. Moreover, their precisely tunable emission properties open new avenues for deep-brain imaging and optical modulation. This review systematically summarizes the luminescence mechanisms of LNPs and recent advances in their applications for biosensing and diagnosis in NDs. It covers the detection of key biomarkers, including metal ions, nucleic acids, proteins, and reactive oxygen species. The discussion further extends to the therapeutic strategies targeting intracellular and microenvironmental factors, as well as synergistic approaches, with a particular emphasis on the role of LNPs in targeted drug delivery and combined theranostics. Finally, the review discusses future prospects for leveraging this platform to improve clinical outcomes in NDs.

Wearable electrocardiography (ECG) is shifting cardiovascular monitoring from episodic in-hospital testing to continuous out-of-hospital assessment. Artificial intelligence-enabled ECG (AI-ECG) provides a new pathway for extracting clinically useful information from out-of-hospital wearable recordings. This review is organized around the wearable AI-ECG monitoring pipeline, summarizing key advances in model development, clinical application, and real-world validation, while emphasizing the special requirements that wearable scenarios impose on algorithm design and clinical translation. At present, arrhythmia screening remains the most mature application of AI-ECG, with deep learning models achieving cardiologist-level or clinician-comparable performance in several well-defined tasks. With the growing availability of long-term continuous recordings, research is further extending from post-event recognition to pre-event warning, particularly for high-risk events such as acute atrial fibrillation and malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Related methods are evolving from traditional feature-based machine learning toward deep learning and foundation models that can exploit waveform morphology, rhythm dynamics, and long-range temporal information. Beyond rhythm disorders, AI-ECG is also being explored for structural cardiac abnormalities, metabolic disorders, and broader systemic risk prediction, suggesting a potential role for ECG as a digital biomarker platform. However, several barriers continue to limit clinical translation, including limited cross-device and cross-population generalizability, insufficient interpretability, and the lack of prospective real-world validation. Future progress will likely depend on standardized data systems, artifact-aware modeling, cross-device validation, foundation models, longitudinal risk modeling, and intelligent systems designed for clinical workflows. Overall, wearable AI-ECG is evolving from passive abnormality detection toward continuous, proactive, and personalized health risk assessment.

Pancreatic cancer, particularly pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), presents formidable treatment challenges owing to the intricacies of its anatomical structures and biological impediments. RNA-based therapeutics offer unprecedented potential for PDAC treatment. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest advances in PDAC-targeted nucleic acid delivery systems, including extracellular vesicles, polymer carriers, lipid nanoparticles, viral vectors, and antibody-drug conjugates. Key features of each delivery platform, such as their structural modifications and targeting mechanisms, are highlighted. Additionally, the review emphasizes their capacity to overcome PDAC-specific biological barriers (e.g., blood-pancreatic barrier, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, dense extracellular matrix). It also outlines current challenges and future directions in optimizing nucleic acid delivery for PDAC. Integrating the latest insights into PDAC biology, delivery system engineering, and nucleic acid drug development, this review provides a concise, up-to-date perspective to guide the design of effective translational strategies for PDAC therapy.

Understanding the structure-property relationship of braided nitinol stents is critical for developing devices with optimized mechanical performance for endovascular applications. This study systematically investigates how key geometric parameters (including points per inch (PPI), braiding angle, wire count, wire coverage coefficient (WCC), diameter, and braiding architecture), influence the compressive, bending, and torsional behavior of nitinol stents. A combined experimental and finite element analysis (FEA) approach was used to evaluate 54 configurations under three mechanical loading conditions. Results reveal strong linear correlations (R² ≥ 0.90) between mechanical performance and PPI, WCC, braiding angle, and diameter. Wire count plays a contradictory role in mechanical performance: higher wire numbers increase bending and torsional stiffness but reduce radial strength. The 1-1 braid structure provides superior torsional and bending strength compared to the 1-2 structure, without compromising compressive strength. Notably, in small-diameter (1 mm) catheters, increasing PPI reduces flexibility and torsional stiffness, contrary to trends observed in larger diameters. These findings offer a comprehensive design guideline for tailoring stent architecture to match specific mechanical and clinical requirements.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the design of ionizable lipids, the pivotal components of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery, enabling efficient exploration of vast chemical space of ionizable lipids beyond the reach of traditional methods. This mini-review explores the burgeoning field of AI-powered design and optimization of ionizable lipids for mRNA delivery. We also discuss the critical role of high-throughput experimental strategies, particularly barcoding coupled with next-generation sequencing, in generating the large-scale in vivo datasets for model training. Finally, we discuss current challenges, including data quality and the necessity for domain-specific modeling strategies, and present a future outlook on the integration of AI with scientific computing for LNP research.

Microwave (MW) medicine has emerged as a distinct interdisciplinary field, predicated on the unique capacity of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation to penetrate deep-seated tissues and interact efficiently with biological dielectrics for diverse therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Despite its clinical establishment in tumor ablation and hemostasis, conventional MW interventions are largely constrained by non-selective macroscopic heating, leaving the intricate potential of non-thermal biophysical modulation underutilized. The integration of engineered biomaterials provides a transformative framework to bridge this gap, enabling the precise modulation of MW-tissue interactions at the micro- and nanoscale. This review systematically elucidates how rational material design via tuning dielectric and magnetic loss, band-gap engineering, and structural polarization expands MW medicine beyond bulk heating toward controlled biological regulation. We discuss mechanisms where biomaterials function as localized energy antennas to sharpen thermal gradients, as MW-dynamic sensitizers to induce reactive oxygen species generation, and as intelligent interfaces to regulate ionic homeostasis. Representative advancements are summarized across antitumor, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory therapies, alongside innovations in high-fidelity thermoacoustic imaging. Furthermore, emerging frontiers in non-destructive tissue repair and neuromodulation are highlighted. This review critically examines the design principles and translational challenges of MW-based medical technologies by analyzing correlations between physicochemical parameters and specific biological outcomes. It is expected to advance MW medicine from empirically guided thermal interventions toward mechanism-driven, precision-targeted electromagnetic therapeutics.

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are pivotal regulators of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and major contributors to resistance against conventional and immunotherapeutic interventions. Rather than eliminating TAMs, emerging strategies aim to functionally reprogram them toward an antitumor phenotype, a therapeutic objective uniquely enabled by the precise, transient, and non-integrating nature of mRNA, which allows reversible modulation without genomic risk. Recent progress in nanocarrier design has improved selective delivery to TAMs through both passive uptake and active targeting, with administration routes tailored to tumor location. Precise immunomodulatory interventions in macrophages, accomplished by mRNA payloads designed to induce pro-inflammatory polarization, enhance phagocytosis, or block immunosuppressive signals, thereby remodel the tumor immune microenvironment and generate synergy with established treatments. Future efforts might concentrate on macrophage heterogeneity, carrier immunogenicity, and scalable formulation development to advance clinical translation, not only in cancer but also in other diseases shaped by dysregulated macrophage function.

Antibody-targeted lipid nanoparticles (Ab-LNPs) represent a highly promising delivery platform for precision therapy, enabling efficient in vivo targeted delivery of nucleic acid drugs such as mRNA, DNA and siRNA. Currently, the two primary strategies for antibody functionalization of LNPs are the post-insertion method and direct surface conjugation. This review outlines the key chemistry, manufacturing, and controls challenges associated with scaling up of Ab-LNP production, with a focus on antibody modification strategies, process scale-up challenges, and quality control considerations. It aims to provide practical guidance for translating Ab-LNP technology from laboratory research to scalable manufacturing.

Magnesium alloys are primarily composed of magnesium, with the additions of elements such as calcium, yttrium, and zinc. In the human physiological environment, they gradually degrade, and their degradation products can be absorbed, exhibiting excellent biocompatibility, mechanical properties comparable to bone tissue, and degradability; thus, they hold broad prospects in orthopedics. Nanotechnology involves the design and manufacture of materials, devices, and systems with unique physical, chemical, and biological properties by controlling the arrangement and interactions of atoms, molecules, or nanostructural units at the nanoscale (1-100 nm). The integration of these two technologies shows exceptional potential for orthopedic regenerative repair. Nanotechnology significantly enhances the mechanical performance, bioactivity, antibacterial properties, and controlled degradation of biodegradable magnesium alloys through various approaches, while biodegradable magnesium alloys provide an ideal biomaterial carrier for nanotechnology, enabling the better exertion of its advantages in bone tissue repair. This review summarizes the innovations arising from the fusion of magnesium alloys and nanotechnology in bone repair, aiming to advance the evolution of orthopedic medical devices, promote a shift in clinical treatment paradigms toward personalized and precise therapy, and ultimately deliver superior and more efficient therapeutic options for patients with orthopedic conditions, thereby improving human health and quality of life.

Medical catheters constitute indispensable components of contemporary healthcare, yet they are confronted with persistent limitations in biocompatibility and functionality, such as thrombosis, infection, and tissue injury, which adversely affect patient safety and therapeutic outcomes. Surface coating technology has consequently arisen as a critical approach to reengineer the catheter-biological interface, thereby augmenting functional performance while preserving the intrinsic properties of the bulk materials. This review systematically outlines recent advances in coating technologies for medical catheters. It begins by analyzing mainstream coating methods, such as layer-by-layer self-assembly, surface grafting, and biomimetic adhesion, followed by the introduction of coatings with anticoagulant, antibacterial, lubricant, and multifunctional properties. The effectiveness and challenges of these coatings in clinical applications, such as cardiovascular intervention, long-term indwelling urinary catheters, and respiratory management are critically examined. Finally, the review discusses current translational bottlenecks and future trends toward intelligent, durable, and cost-effective coating solutions, providing a comprehensive reference for developing next-generation high-performance medical catheters.

T cell-derived extracellular vesicles (TcEVs) are nanoscale lipid bilayer-bound particles, including exosomes, microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and T cell microvilli particles. TcEVs possess advantages such as high yield, favorable biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and excellent solid tumor penetration, showing great potential in cancer immunotherapy. However, natural TcEVs exhibit weak targeting ability, limited immune activity, and low drug-loading capacity. To address these issues, several engineering strategies have been adopted to modify the vesicles through genetic engineering, surface modification, and drug-loading, thereby achieving effective treatment of both hematological and solid tumors. This review summarizes TcEVs’ classification, biological functions, engineering strategies, and applications in cancer immunotherapy, while discussing challenges and prospects to facilitate their clinical translation.

Traditional cancer treatment methodologies, including chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, commonly lead to severe adverse reactions. In recent years, innovative treatment modalities, particularly photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), have garnered increasing attention due to their enhanced therapeutic levels. Against this background, black TiO₂, a new kind of functional material, has become a research emphasis in the domain of cancer treatment. This material exhibits broad spectral absorption and strong near-infrared light penetration, enabling it to efficiently satisfy the optical requirements of both PDT and PTT. This article presents a mini review of PDT, PTT, and their synergistic combination strategies based on black TiO₂.

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) is pivotal for addressing bone defects. It integrates biomaterials, cells, and bioactive factors to mimic the natural bone microenvironment, thereby promoting bone regeneration and repair. In this system, scaffolds provide physical support and nutrient transport for cells. Three-dimensional (3D) printing revolutionizes BTE by fabricating customized scaffolds tailored to individual patients. As the cornerstone of 3D bioprinting, bioinks must meet strict biocompatibility and printability requirements to drive BTE advancement. In this review, we first explore the principles, advantages, and limitations of various bioprinting techniques. Furthermore, we also summarized recent breakthroughs and merits of three key photo-crosslinking reactions, including photoinitiated free radical crosslinking, photoclick crosslinking, and photo-conjugation crosslinking. Moreover, this review focused on the properties of natural polymers, synthetic polymers, and calcium phosphate-based inorganic materials in bioink formulation, as well as their BTE applications. Finally, a concise outlook on the future advancement of photocurable bioinks was provided.

Pathological calcification is typically regarded as a pathological endpoint, representing the abnormal deposition of calcium salts in tissues. With the continuous advancement of research, scientists have explored novel therapeutic strategies involving the induced calcification of tumor cells, demonstrating its potential therapeutic capabilities. Recently, a pioneering study on the use of induced calcification to treat bacterial infections has been reported. This commentary first introduces the classification, etiology, and treatment of pathological calcification. Then, the antibacterial effects of induced calcification therapy through the delicately designed antibacterial agent against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are generally demonstrated and discussed. The underlying mechanism of induced calcification for the treatment of chronic lung infections and chronic osteomyelitis caused by MRSA is revealed from the perspectives of bacterial energy metabolism and immune modulation. At the end of this commentary, challenges and future directions for induced calcification therapy are also briefly presented.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease driven by synovial inflammation and immune dysregulation, especially in the knee joint. Macrophages play a key role in innate immunity and can differentiate into pro-inflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes, which have a significant impact on the progression of OA. Electrospun nanofiber membranes, as a promising biomaterial, can regulate the polarization of macrophages towards the M2 phenotype, thereby reducing inflammation and promoting tissue repair. This article systematically reviews the immune microenvironment of OA, the mechanism of macrophage polarization, and the role of nanofiber membranes in the treatment of OA. In conclusion, the continuous development of nanofiber membrane technology will greatly change the future of OA treatment and provide more effective and efficient solutions for patients.

Bacterial infections caused by biomaterials represent a significant challenge in the clinical management of implants. Implant infections not only lead to surgical failure, prolong patient hospital stays, and increase healthcare costs, but may also trigger severe complications and even pose a threat to the patient’s life. Research on antimicrobial materials for metal implant surfaces holds significant importance. By developing antimicrobial coatings for implant surfaces or utilizing inherently antimicrobial metallic materials, bacterial adhesion and growth on implant surfaces can be effectively suppressed, thereby reducing infection rates and improving the success rate of implant surgeries. Simultaneously, the development of antimicrobial materials also contributes to advancing medical materials science, offering new approaches and methodologies for antimicrobial design in other medical devices. This holds broad application prospects and significant socioeconomic benefits.

Peripheral nerve injury remains a significant clinical challenge, particularly in cases of long-gap defects. While autologous nerve grafting serves as the current gold standard treatment, its limitations include donor site morbidity and limited donor nerve availability. As a promising alternative, nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) have emerged within the field of tissue engineering. Incorporating electrical stimulation into NGCs has been shown to facilitate peripheral nerve repair by promoting Schwann cell migration and neurite extension. A significant advancement in this area is the application of piezoelectric biomaterials, which generate endogenous electrical signals from physiological mechanical stimuli. This self-powered mechanism eliminates the need for external power sources or additional surgical interventions. This review systematically examines the material design, fabrication strategies, and electromechanical properties of piezoelectric NGCs, along with their recent applications for enhancing Schwann cell function, guiding axonal growth, and promoting functional nerve recovery. Furthermore, it discusses current challenges and future directions, aiming to provide novel insights for the development of next-generation intelligent neural repair materials.

Adrenaline hydrochloride is an indispensable drug in clinical emergencies, effective at alleviating critical conditions such as weak pulse and respiratory distress. However, the catechol moiety in its molecular structure is prone to oxidation, leading to drug degradation, reduced efficacy, and a short half-life. These inherent limitations significantly restrict its broader clinical application. To address this challenge, this study constructed an intelligent microneedle patch designed to stabilize drugs. We first grafted 3-aminophenylboronic acid onto silk fibroin via 1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide coupling chemistry. This design enables the formation of reversible boronic ester bonds between phenylboronic acid and the catechol structure of adrenaline, effectively shielding the oxidation-sensitive sites and significantly enhancing the drug’s storage stability. Upon insertion into the skin, the microneedles encounter the physiological environment where glucose competitively binds to the phenylboronic acid, triggering the cleavage of the boronic ester bonds and resulting in the on-demand release of adrenaline. A cumulative drug release rate of approximately 60% was achieved over 24 hours. This study proposes a novel “protection-release” dual-functional design, offering a new strategy for the efficient delivery and stabilized storage of catechol-containing drugs. This approach holds significant promise for applications in emergency medicine and the long-term storage of pharmaceuticals.

Immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative approach in cancer therapeutics, yet its clinical translation remains constrained by significant challenges, including tumor immune evasion mechanisms and suboptimal efficacy of monotherapy, collectively impeding the full realization of its therapeutic potential. With their unique physicochemical properties, tunable enzyme-mimetic activities, and ability to induce cuproptosis, copper-based nanomaterials provide a new solution to overcome these limitations and have become a research focus in the field of targeted antitumor immunotherapy. This review systematically summarizes the research progress of copper-based nanomaterials in tumor immunotherapy, with a focus on discussing their core antitumor immunological mechanisms. These materials trigger immunogenic cell death by inducing cuproptosis and activate the body’s innate and adaptive immune responses through the release of damage-associated molecular patterns, such as calreticulin, high-mobility group box 1, adenosine triphosphate, and mitochondrial DNA. Meanwhile, they remodel the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment by alleviating tumor hypoxia, scavenging immunosuppressive metabolites, and reducing immunosuppressive cells. On this basis, this review further analyzes the combined therapeutic strategies of copper-based nanomaterials with immune checkpoint blockade, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, sonodynamic therapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. It also elaborates on the specific mechanisms by which various combined regimens enhance antitumor efficacy, such as through synergistically amplifying oxidative stress, strengthening cell death effects, or improving therapeutic targeting. Additionally, this review discusses the current challenges faced by copper-based nanomaterials in clinical translation and points out future development directions. This review aims to provide a theoretical basis and practical guidance for the clinical translation of multifunctional copper-based nanoplatforms. It also offers new insights for the development of tumor immunotherapies based on metal and redox biology, helping to overcome immune tolerance and improve the efficacy of antitumor treatment.

The effectiveness of hemostasis during spinal surgery directly influences the surgical success rate and patient prognosis. Minimally invasive surgery has multiple advantages, including reductions in intraoperative and postoperative blood loss, minimized damage to surrounding tissues, and alleviation of postoperative pain. However, when the spinal epidural venous plexus is located within deep cavities, achieving sufficient hemostasis often presents challenges due to limited operating space and the limitations of traditional hemostatic materials. In recent years, novel adhesive hemostatic hydrogels have served as local injectable hemostatic agents. These hydrogels function through dual mechanisms: physical blockage of bleeding sites and biological activation, such as promoting coagulation cascades, thereby showing significant advantages in bleeding control at complex anatomical sites. Accordingly, this article systematically reviews the progress of basic research and clinical translation related to hemostatic materials over the past five years to provide a scientific foundation for optimizing perioperative hemostatic strategies.

Lipid nanoparticle-based messenger RNA (mRNA) delivery system have ushered in a new era of gene therapeutics. However, their clinical advances have been impeded by the inherent liver tropism of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which limits extrahepatic applications. Herein, we highlight two recent studies written in Nature Materials. Guided by surface interface molecular mechanics, Chang and his colleagues worked on the intelligent design of targeted peptides combined with lipids. Concurrently, Lin and his colleagues explored novel organ-specific peptide-lipid materials and analyzed important LNP traits that co-determined the in vitro/in vivo transfection discrepancy. The resulting peptide-modified lipids exhibit the capacity for targeted delivery to various organs and realize gene editing function. These studies jointly established a modular platform that provides a rational and predictable strategy for designing tissue-specific LNPs, thereby paving the way for next-generation mRNA-based therapeutics.

This review examines recent advances and applications of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in orthopedic fracture management, with a particular focus on its transformative role in personalized treatment strategies. The introduction of patient-specific 3D-printed implants and fracture plates has markedly improved surgical outcomes by reducing operative time, enhancing anatomical alignment, and promoting bone healing. By enabling the fabrication of customized implants, 3D printing provides an innovative approach for managing complex fractures and bone defects, particularly in cases where conventional methods are inadequate. Key benefits discussed include the development of tailored fracture plates, bone scaffolds, and bioactive materials that support bone regeneration. The review also explores the potential of emerging technologies such as four-dimensional printing and bioprinting, which allow for the creation of dynamic implants capable of adapting to biological changes and facilitating tissue regeneration. In addition, the integration of artificial intelligence into preoperative planning and implant design is highlighted for its contribution to improving surgical precision and individualized treatment. This review consolidates the latest advancements while also addressing challenges, including high production costs and regulatory barriers, that must be overcome for widespread clinical adoption. In conclusion, the future of orthopedic fracture management is expected to be significantly reshaped by the continuous evolution of 3D printing technologies, offering more personalized, effective, and efficient solutions for patients. As these innovations progress, 3D printing is anticipated to play a pivotal role in advancing orthopedic surgery and ultimately improving patient outcomes.

As the primary skin-contact interface in wearable electrocardiograph (ECG) devices, epidermal electrodes play a pivotal role in determining both signal quality and biocompatibility. With continuous advancements in materials science and structural engineering, next-generation flexible and stretchable bioelectrodes have emerged, enabling long-term ECG monitoring and offering superior signal-to-noise ratios compared to conventional clinical electrodes. Their performance in ensuring reliable signal acquisition and user comfort is primarily governed by key interfacial mechanical and electrical properties, including mechanical compliance (i.e., flexibility and stretchability), interfacial adhesion (i.e., conformability and adhesion strength), and electrical characteristics (i.e., contact impedance). In recent years, significant progress has been made in enhancing the signal acquisition capabilities of flexible and stretchable bioelectrodes by optimizing these critical interfacial attributes. This review highlights the latest advances in conformable epidermal electrodes, encompassing traditional wet electrodes, flexible dry electrodes, novel dry electrodes based on organic electrochemical transistors, and integrated wearable systems. We systematically examine strategies for improving skin-electrode interface performance in ECG monitoring. Finally, we discuss ongoing challenges and future directions to advance epidermal electrode technologies for next-generation wearable healthcare applications.

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are a serious complication of diabetes and often result in amputation. Traditional wound care methods have limitations in addressing the complex pathophysiology of DFUs. Hydrogel dressings, a type of biomaterial, have emerged as promising candidates for treating DFUs due to their biocompatibility, ability to retain moisture, and potential to incorporate therapeutic agents. Hydrogels create a moist environment, promote cell migration, and reduce inflammation, thereby supporting wound healing. Incorporating bioactive molecules, such as growth factors and anti-inflammatory agents, can further enhance the effectiveness of hydrogels. Additionally, stem cells can be loaded into hydrogels to improve tissue regeneration and help modulate the wound microenvironment. Recent advancements in hydrogel technology have also led to the development of smart hydrogels that can respond to changes in wound conditions, such as glucose levels and pH. These intelligent dressings offer personalized care by delivering targeted treatments based on real-time wound data. This review explores the mechanisms behind DFU development, the role of hydrogels in wound healing, and recent progress in hydrogel technologies for personalized DFU care.